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RUSSIAN-GERMAN LINKS IN BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE:

300-YEAR EXPERIENCE OF INTERACTION

ABSTRACTS OF THE CONFERENCE

 

E. I. Kolchinsky

Russian-German links in biology: perspectives of research

Russian-German links in biology were realized in specialists training, scientific societies and scientific organizations contacts (the Academy of Sciences, the University, the Forest Institute etc.), carrying out joint expeditions and conferences, scientists migrations etc.

Many German scientists worked in Russia and added vivid pages to the history of native biology; others were foreign members of St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, sometimes with money allowance. In its turn most of Russian biologists before revolution studied and began their scientific career in Germany. There was constant exchange of ideas and methods in the field of embryology, morphology, paleontology, genetics, evolutionary theory etc. Co-operation of scientists began in the XYIII century and was widening and strengthening afterwards, covering more and more fields. It is notable, that social-political factors connected with territorial changes, wars, migrations of population, differences in cultural level etc. played an important role in the evolution of scientific co-operation forms between biologists of both countries, promoting to the quick joining of Russian scientists in the world science. General methodological ideas on the role of international contacts in the development of science and the parameters of their studying are related.

 

A. V. Kupriyanov

From utilitarian to philosophical Natural history: textbooks of Natural history, Botany and Zoology in Russia and countries of German area published in the second half of the 18th – first half of the 19th centuries

It is beyond the question, that the system of education is an integral part of science if the latter is described as a complex system of production and reproduction of knowledge. Not only because a considerable part of the “big heads” of science of the 18th and 19th centuries worked at professors’ positions in the universities, lyceums, and gymnasiums. The educational system is responsible for reproduction of the learned stratum of the society, dissemination of knowledge, professional standards, and scientific practices. I would argue that, from this perspective, a study of textbooks should be regarded, among other aspects of the history of education, as an important part of the history of science. Besides of that, textbooks play an important role in dissemination of knowledge in the society, and in shaping of humans’ attitudes towards nature. The present paper summarises some preliminary results of a study of Russian and German textbooks of natural history, botany, and zoology of the second half of the 18th and the first half of the 19th centuries and focuses on a transition form an utilitarian to a more philosophical natural history by the middle of the 19th century.

The textbooks of the second half of the 18th century are loaded with a highly utilitarian approach to natural beings. Natural history is defined as a science, which provides people with a very useful knowledge of how to distinguish, identify, and make use of nauralia. This aim is formulated explicitly in the introductory parts and underlies all the short chapters devoted to descriptions of particular species, which are full of remarks on the use of a mineral, a plant, or an animal in economy.

In the textbooks written in the period from the very end of the 18th century through the first quarter of the 19th, the utilitarian remarks, instead of being scattered through the entire volume, are concentrated in a separate chapter on the use of naturalia within the introductory ‘general’ part. This tendency was taken to the extreme in a textbook entitled „Naturgeschichte und Technologie für Lehrer in Schulen und für Liebhaber dieser Wissenschaften” by Funcke, with each volume including a large division entirely devoted to ‘technology’ (i.e. economic use of animals, plants, and minerals).

By the middle of the 19th century, utilitarian remarks had almost disappeared. The authors became concerned mainly with taxonomy and comparative anatomy. The very aim of system and classification, however, changed. The system, which previously had been considered a mere key to the manifold of naturalia, became a reflection of the eternal laws of Nature that govern the individual development of organisms.

These shifts in the content of the textbooks were in a close agreement with institutional changes that had happened by the middle of the 19th century, when the ‘pure’ (mineralogy and geognosy, botany, and zoology) and ‘applied’ (technology and agriculture) disciplines became separated at the level of university chairs and faculties.

Even though the very notion of biology (in a more or less modern sense of a word) had been introduced at the edge of the 18th and 19th centuries, it, with an exception of Treviranus’s manual, failed to find a way to the title pages of textbooks until the beginning of the 20th century. The Natural history remained a dominant disciplinary identity until the very end of the period under study. Moreover, on the level of the secondary school textbooks, it became even more uniform than in the 18th century. First separate textbooks on the parts of natural history (mineralogy, zoology, etc.) had appeared as early as in the 18th century but they became more or less common only by 1830s, with a remarkable exception of botany, which had been separated earlier, by the end of the 18th century.

 

A. Sytin

Die Deutsche Tradition in der Erforschung der Russischen Flora

Die empirischen und genauen Beobachtungen von D.G. Messerschmidt in Sibirien bildeten die Grundlage der Methoden seiner Nachfolger. Die "Flora Sibirica" von J.G. Gmelin und die unvollstaendige "Flora Rossica" von P.S. Pallas enthalten alle diese Informationen. In diesen Werken, geschrieben fuer praktische Zwecke, findet sich eine Reihe neuer Arten. C.F. Ledebour, Begruender der Dorpat- (Tartu, Estland) Schule fuer floristische und taxonomosche Arbeiten, veroeffentlichte seine herausragende "Flora Rossica" 1841-1843. Dieses Werk und die "Flora Baicalensi-Dahurica" von N.S. Turczaninow bilden den Hoehepunkt der Periode von Linnaeus in Bezug auf die Kenntnis der russischen Flora.

Die vergleichende Analyse der lokalen Floren nahe Sarepta (Die Kolonie der lutherischen Herrenhuter bei Zarizyn, heute Volgograd) wurde von C.C. Claus durchgefuehrt. Diese quantitative Methode der Phytogeographie stimulierte die Weiterentwicklung dieser Methode bei konkreten Floren durch A.I. Tolmachev.

Das Phaenomen der Variabilitaet der Pflanzen - Ursache fuer die enorme Zunahme wissenschaftlicher Pflanzennamen - als Versuch, die Gesamtheiy einer Flora zu verstehen, bildete so die Basis fuer die spaetere Genetik. J.T. Schmalhausen (1849-1894) erkannte beim Studieum der natuerlichen Hybriden in der Flora von St. Petersburg als erster die grosse Bedeutung der Mendel'schen Experimente. Sein russischer Zeitgenosse S.I. Korshinsky (1861-1900) nahm mit seiner Original-Theorie der Heterogenesis bereits die Mutationstheorie vom H. De-Vries vorweg. Im Zentrum seiner Konzeption stellen die geographischen Rassen (proles) eine Einheit in der Flora dar. Da Korshinsky zu der Einsicht kam, dass eine Flora eine lebende, sich aendernde Einheit ist, war er der Vorlaeufer der Systemanalyse von Floren.

Die Idee der "Phylogenetischen Pflanzengeographie" von A. Engler beeinflusste die Arbeiten zahlreicher russischer Erforscher mittelasiatischer Gebirge, vor allem sei hier A.N. Krasnow genannt.

Die "Flora des Kaukasus" von A.A. Grossheim war das letzte Werk in der deutschen Tradition. Es wurde mit dem Komarov-Preis zu Ehren des Schoepfers der "Flora USSR" ausgezeichnet.

 

K. Böhme

Die Verbindung der Gesselschaft Naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin zu russischen Gelehrten

Anhand der Verbindungen der 1773 gegründeten Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin (GNF) sollen die Kontakte Berliner zu St. Peterburger Gelehrten in den 70er und 80er Jahren des 18. Jahrhunderts aufgezeigt werden. Diese gestaltenen sich in vielfältiger Weise, u.a. auch durch Geschenke an Büchern und Naturalien oder durch das Einsenden von Manuskriepten.

Die Verbindung wurde insbesondere durch ein Ehrenmitglied der Gesselschaft, Johann Karl Friedrich Meyer (1739 – 1811) hergestellt. Meyer war Hofapotheker in Stettin (Szczecin). Er besorgte die mit rissischen Gelehrten gefürte Korrespondenz. Ausserdem fürte er mehrere der Personen, die im Vortrag vorgestellt werden sollen, in die Gesselschaft ein, in dem er sie zu neuen Ehrenmitgliedern vorschlug. Dessen Stellung als „Verbindungsmann“ kann Anhaltspunkte für Kommunikationswege zwischen Berlin und St. Peterburg geben.

 

G. I. Smagina

Beitrag deutscher Gelehrter zur Schaffung der populärwissenschaftlichen Literatur im Rußland des 18. Jahrhunderts

Zu einem der wirksamsten Mittel der weiten Verbreitung von naturwissenschaftlichen Kenntnissen wird im 18. Jahrhundert die periodische Presse. Die deutschen Gelehrten leisteten zur Schaffung und Herausbildung populärwissenschaftlicher Zeitschriften in Rußland einen merklichen Beitrag. Auf Initiative des Akademiemitglieds G.F.Müller und unter seiner direkten Mitwirkung wurden an der Akademie der Wissenschaften die zwei populärwissenschaftlichen Zeitschriften herausgegeben: “Primecanija na “Vedomosti”” (1728-1742, “Anmerkungen zu den “Berichten””) und “Ezemesjacnye socinenija” (1755-1764, “Monatsschriften”). Großer Beliebtheit erfreuten sich bei dem lesenden Publikum auch die beiden von der Akademie der Wissenschaften herausgegeben Zeitschriften: “Novye ezemesjacnye socinenija” (1768-1796, “Neue Monatsschriften”) und “Akademiceskie izvestija” (1779-1781, “Akademische Nachrichten”). Zu den Hauptautoren dieser Zeitschriften gehörten fast alle deutschen. Mitglieder der Petersburger Akademie der Wissenschaften.

 

E. Mirzoyan

Goethe as a precursor of the idea of noosphere

V.I.Vernadsky took scientific and poetical heritage of Goethe in harmony with his theory of biosphere and noosphere; and I.I.Kanaev called Goethe “the fighter for the new epoch of intellect, or noosphere, coming”. They both appealed in this respect to the final fifth act of the tragedy “Faust” by Goethe. “Faust” presents poetical variant of the “Novel about the Universe” - the book which was intended but not realized by Goethe – naturalist. “Faust” reflects goethian picture of the world based on the idea of harmony and spirituality of nature, full of admiration with live nature and love to people. Life appeared in it as the best invention of nature, and the sense of human existence was found in life keeping.

 

Ju. A. Lajus

Leonid Breitfuss - German explorer of the Russian North, and his role in the international scientific cooperation in the polar research

In this paper the many-sided activity of Leonid Breitfuss (1864-1950) zoologist, oceanographer, polar explorer - will be discussed. Being German by his ancestors Leonid Breitfuss was born in Russia, in St.Petersburg. After receiving a doctoral degree in zoology at University of Berlin, in 1897 he returned to Russia. There he participated in the activity of the Murman Scientific-Fishery Expedition. From that time all his interests during his long life were connected with the North.

At 1902 he became the head of the Murman Expedition. To that time the Expedition was the complex institution conducted oceanographic, zoological and fishery research. The most important part of its activity was connected with the program of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. Russia participated in this Council from its foundation in 1902. Breifuss was very much interested in new methods of oceanographic research, he established a good contacts with Scandinavian scientists. He recruited to the work of the Expedition researchers who jointed hydrological and hydrochemical studies of the sea with studies of plankton and bacteria. Such combination of research was one of the key trends in the development of the a new discipline - biological oceanography. In this course, for example, the research activity of the famous Kiel school in Germany developed. But Leonid Breitfuss himself more and more diverged from zoological studies being preoccupied by many-sided organizational activity and also being interested in meteorology.

After the closing of the Expedition he headed the Hydrometeorological Department of the Central Hydrographical Board of the Russian Navy. In 1914 Breifuss was one of the founders of the Polar Commission of the Academy of Sciences. He was very active in the organizing of the rescue expeditions for the vanished polar explorers. After the revolution he went to Murman, where in the disorder of the Civil war he tried to organize the Murman Department of the Arkhangelsk Society for the Studies of Russian North.

In 1920 Leonid Breitfus emigrated to Germany, where he worked at first at the Zoological Museum of Berlin University, then in Deutsche Seewarter in Hamburg. The most active he was in the field of international co-operation in the polar research. He played a significant role in the organization and activity of the “Aeroarctic” Society, the president of which was Fritjof Nansen. Breifuss was the first who posed the idea of the Second International Polar Year. He is the author of more than 200 publications, among them several books on the history of polar exploration.

 

U. Hossfeld

Morfologiekonzepte nach Häckel: Phylembryogenese von A.N.Severtzoff (1931) und Biologischer Fortschritt von V. Franz (1935)

Die ersten vergleichend-morphologieschen Arbeiten von A.N.Sewertzoff hatten das Ziel, den Verlauf der Phylogenese verschiedener Organe der Wirbelteire zu erforschen. Daraus resultierte letzlich auch sein Interesse am Problem der Erforschung der morphologischen Gesetzmäsigkeiten der Evolution. In seinen Untersuchungen, die 1931 im Buch Morphologische Gesetzmässigkeiten der Evolution ihren Niederschlag fanden, knüpfte er an die früeren Forschungen von Karl Ernst von Baer, Fritz Müller, Ernst Häckel, Anton Dohrn u.a. an und entwickelte deren Vorstellungen u.a. über den Ablauf der Phylogenese weiter (vgl. z.B. das Gesetz der Phyloembryogenese).

Etwa zur gleichen Zeit entwickelte in Deutschland (Jena) der Zoologe Victor Franz ähnliche Vorstellungen und legte 1935 ein Kompilat seiner morphologischen Forschungen im Buch Biologischer Fortschritt – Theorie der organismengeschichtlichen Vervolkommung vor. Die darin enthaltenen biometabolischen Modi zur Erklärung des Biogenetischen Grundgesetzes (von Häckel) enthalten das selbe Argumentationsmaterial wie bei Sewertzoff; beide Wissenschaftlicher entwickelten völlig unabhängig voneinander die selben Gedanken!

Mein Vortrag soll nun den Parallellauf und die Genese der beiden Morphologiekonzepte näher beleuchten. Anhand von Archivmaterial wird des weiteren die russisch-deutsche Rezeption von morphologischen Gedankengut aufgezeigt, die bis in die Mitte der 1940er Jahre bestand hatte.

 

N.N.Luneva., I.G.Chukhina , T.K.Lassan

Herbarium of cultivated plants (WIR) from R.E.Regel up to our days

The collection of cultural and wild plants of All-Russia Institute of plant cultivation named N.I.Vavilov (WIR) is one of unique herbarium collections of Russia. One of creators of this collection and this scientific establishment is an outstanding botanist R.E.Regel.

Bureau on applied botany of Agricultural scientific committee has become a basis for a modern WIR. It was conceived as establishment, was specialised on study of cultivated plants. A huge merit of R.E.Regel was also the foudation in 1912 of a Bureau's magazin - "Labours on applied botany".

Regel has put in pawn sources of scientific directions, which develop at the moment in division taxonomy and herbarium of WIR. He has determined principles, fixed subsequently by the experts of WIR in a basis of cultural plants systematics. The principles of study in- and intraspecific of a variety and evolution of cultural plants, was developed under a management of N.I.Vavilov, have found reflection in peculiarities of formation of herbarium collection. He’s colleague E.V.Wulf was a largest specialist in study of botany of this period. He was systematized a collection of institute.

Existing from the moment of creation of institute the close scientific connections with german botanists and scientific establishments of Germany, have renewed after war and proceed till now. Especially close cooperation were established with Central institute of cultural plants of Gattersleben.

 

M. B. Konashev

Iurii Aleksandrovich Philipchenko and Genetics in Germany

The origin and the development of Russian genetics during first decade of its existence was influenced deeply by the genetical researches abroad especially in Germany. One of peculiarities of Rusian genetics in this time was its close connection with eugenics. Philipchenko who established the first department of genetics in Russia in 1919 had got knowledge of German achievements in both fields during his to Richard Hertvig at Munich in 1911-1912. There he was interested in the experimental biology and especially in genetics owing to his acquintance and friendship with Richard Goldshmindt.

Philipchenko's views on evolution were influenced first of all by those of Karl W. Naegeli and R. Hetrtwig, and also Karl M. Baer.

Even his choice of zoology as a caree was the result of (at least partly) his reading o. Carl Naegeli's "Mechanisch-physiologische Theorie der Abstammungslehre" (1884) and Darwin's "Origin of Speies" and "Sexual Selection" in 1897.

After his return home he began giving popular lectures on eugenics in 1917 and published his first popular article on the subject in 1918 as well as in 1919 on genetics and published an influential popular article in this field that was the first generally available summary of the last achievments of genetics abroad.

During first half of 1920s Philichenko published the number of books and articles on gebetics and eugenics based on his research data and the results of German colleagues. In 1922 Russian Society of Eugenics started the publication of "Russian Eugenical Journal". Philipchenko became co-editor of this journal soon. Besides he published his own "Bulletin of the Bureau of Eugenics" in Petrograd. Observing the developments of genetics and eugenics in Germany and some other countries including the USA he permanently informed readers about the condition and main trends of researches on genetics and eugenics.

For example, hie reviws included all issues of "Archiv fur Rassen und Gessellschaftsbiologie".

In 1923 he published "The Evolutionary Idea in Biology" that critically evaluated the most famous evolutionary theories including ones of K. Naegeli, Th. Eimer and A. Weismann.

By the end of 1920s Philipchenko had become convinced that "German" trend of researches on genetics had more perspective than "American" one. Drawing on the recent works of German coleagues and his own ideas and experimental results he proposed the integration of developmental mechanics and genetics. In 1929 he began teaching a new course emboding these ideas and systematically set forth its subject matter in a textbook (published posthumously in 1932 as "Experimental zoology" and in his paper " The morphology and the phyziology of heredity" at the 6th All-Union Congress of Zoologusts in Kiev in May 1930.

 

E. Höxtermann

Zur Entstehung des Hormonkonzepts in der Botanik

Der Hormonbegriff entstand 1905 in der medizinischen Endokrinologie, gleichwohl in der Botanik bereits seit über 40 Jahren „chemische Korrelationen“und örganbildende Stoffe“diskutiert worden waren. Das Konzept entwicklungserregender, formgebender Substanzen in Pflanzen fand lange Zeit wenig Resonanz und setzte sich ernst nach der Entdeckung chemischer Botenstoffe bei Tier und Mensch durch. Die Anerkennung der Phytohormone ging schliesslich von Untersuchungen der phototropen Krümmung von Gräsern aus. Zu den Pionierarbeiten gehörten auch die weithin vergessenen Versuche „Über Heliotropismus“(1896) des Kazaner Botanikers Vladislav Adol‘fovich Rotert (1863 - 1916), auf die sich die spätern, berühmten Wuchsstlffarbeiten der Leipziger Schule Wilhelm Pfeffers (1845 - 1920) gründeten.

Der Vortrag zeichnet die Entstehung des botanischen Hormonkonzepts und die Entdeckungsgeschichte der Auxine nach.

Ju. A. Vinogradov

Die deutsche Biologen –Mitglieder der Imperatorischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (IAW) und der Ersten Weltkrieg

Die deutschen Gelehrten hatten mit den biologischen Wissenschaften in Russland begonnen. Bis Jahr 1914 waren mehr als 40 Auswanderer von Preussen und deutschen Fürstentümern oder die verrussten Deutschen zu Akademiemitgliedern der IAW ausgewählt. Sie hatten einen wichtigen Beitrag in die russische und weltliche Wissenschaft herangebracht. In dieselben Jahren waren 22 deutschen Biologen und Mediziner die Ehrenmitgliedern und 47 darunter – korrespondierenden Mitgliedern der IAW.

Die mehreren russischen Gelehrten auf dem Gebiet der biologischen Wissenschaften hatten bei Kollegen im Deutschland studiert oder ausgeübt. Zum Beispiel hatte der erste russische Nobelpreissträger, der zukunftige Akademiker, Professor I.P. Pavlov beim Professor R. Heidenhain ausgeübt.

Zum Jahr 1914 bestehen in Biologischen Abteilung der Physikalisch-Mathematischen Klasse der IAW als Korr. Mitglieder: der Cytologe, Embriolog Th. Boveri, der Biolog, Zoologe, Protystologe O. Bütschli, der Physiologe K.E.K. Hering, der Biolog R.W.K.Th. von Hertwig, der Botaniker W.F.P. Pfeffer, der Anatom, Histolog, Historiker Chr.H.L. Stieda, der Zoologe F.E. Schulze und der Anatom H.W.G. Waldeyer.

Viele von ihnen waren in freundlichen Beziehungen mit den russischen Kollegen gewesen, ihre Briefen sind in der Petersburgischen Filiale des Archivs der Russischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (RAW) aufbewahrt.

Am 4. Oktober 1914 hatten 90 wirkende Kräfte der Kultur und Wissenschaft von Deutschland und Österreich-Hungarien den “Aufruf an die Kulturwelt” mit der Beschuldigungen der Gegner, als grausamen Agressoren veröffentlicht. Unter den Unterzeichneten war auch der Prof. H.W.G. Waldeyer gewesen, und das wurde überaus dann den Akademiker I.P. Pavlov betrübt.

Am 30. Oktober 1914 hatte die Russische Regierung eine Verordnung über die Säuberung des Personals “der gesellschaftlichen und regierungs- Organisationen und Institutionen” von den Untertänen der gegnerischen Länder aufgenommen. Die oben erwähnten Gelehrten-Biologen waren in der Zahl (57) der vertreibenen aus dem Personalbestand der IAW “nominellen” Mitgliedern gewesen.

Aber die IAW beeilte sich nicht, die Anforderungen der Regierung zu verwirklichen. Die Akademikern hatten keine Gründe für der Kollegensbejagung gehabt. Am 14. März 1915 hatten sie nur scharf “den nominellen Mitgliedern, die den “Aufrur” unterzeichnet hatten und damit in die UnmÖglichkeit der Gemeinschaft mit der Imperatorishen Akademie gestellt waren, getadelt. Kaum nach den schroffen Angriffen an der IAW mit Beschuldigungen in der Deutschanhänglichkeit hatten die Akademikern – nach den Disput – “aus dem Personal von Ehren- und Korresponierenden Mitgliedern der Akademie der Wissenschaften den Untertanen der gegen des Russlands kriegsführenden Mächte” ausgeschlossen. Die Namen solcher lebendiger Mitglieder der IAW waren nicht benannt, aber unter diesen waren die 8 Biologen. Dr Th. Boveri starb vorher.

Die Angaben über ihre Wiederherstellung zu den Mitgliedern der RAW oder AW der UdSSR wur-den nicht gefunden. Obwohl alle diesen Biologen wurden im Buch “Akademie der Wissenschaften der UdSSR. Personalbestand. Bd. I. 1724–1917. M.;Nauka, 1974”(russisch), gibt es dort nichts über ihren Ausschliessung und Rückkehr in Personalbestand der Akademie der Wissenschaften.

Heutzutage wäre es gut, wenn die Allgemeine Versammlung der RAW mit gesetzlicher Ordnung deutschen und Österreichischen Biologen und anderen Gelehrten nachgelassen im Personalbestand der RAW wiederherstellen könnte, wenn es festgestellt wird, dass sie selbst in Jahren des I Weltkriegs über den selbstigen Ausgang aus den Mitgliedern der IAW nicht erklärt. Ist es wichtig, in historischen Handbücher der RAW richtige Daten über deutschen Biologen – Mitglieder der IAW zu haben.

 

Th. Junker

Die Synthetische Theorie in Deutschland: Ein Beispiel gelungener russisch-deutscher Zusammenarbeit

Die Synthetische Theorie der Evolution ist zwischen 1930 und 1950 in drei Hauptzentren entstanden: Sowjetunion, Deutschland und USA/Grossbritannien. Entscheidene Impulse für die Theorieentwicklung in Deutschland gingen von dem russischen Genetiker und Evolutionsbiologen N. W. Timoféeff-Ressovsky aus, der ab 1925 in Berlin forschte. Timoféeff vermittelte die neuen und international führenden Erkenntnisse der russischen Populationsgenetiker an deutsche Evolutionsbiologen und initiierte eine Neuausrichtung evolutionsbiologischer Überlegungen im Sinne der späteren Synthetischen Theorie. Mein Vortrag wird diesem Einfluss der russischen Populationsgenetik nachgehen und an konkreten Beispielen zeigen, in welcher Weise Timoféeff die Theorieentwicklung in Deutschland prägte.

 

A. Geus

Deutch-russische Wissenschaftbeziehungen am Beispiel der Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg

Die zariestische Bildungspolitik setzte nach 1856 die alte Tradition fort, Mediziner und Naturwissenschaftlicher zum Studium bzw. zur weiteren Ausbildung an westeuropäische Universitäten, insbesondere nach Deutchland, zu entsenden. Für russische Biologen wurde Heidelberg bald die wichtigste Anlaufstelle. Inhaltlich haben diese Beziehungen vor allem Untersuchungen an Protisten und anderen Avertebraten in beiden Ländern gefödert, wobei die Zoologiesche Station in Neapel für die Erforschung mariner Tiergruppen und als externer Treffpunkt deutsch-russisch bezetzter Arbeitsgruppen eine grosse Rolle spielte.

T.I.Grekova

German medical institutions in pre-revolutionary Petersburg

When speaking about German medical institutions in Petersburg, the first to be mentioned is the Kalinkin surgical institute set-up in 1783 on the initiative of surgeon-in-ordinary I.Z.Kelchen with the purpose to make getting higher medical education easier for Baltic Germans. Among the teachers of this institute were the founder of the Saint-Petersburg gazette F.Uden and the initiator of the school of Russian surgeons I.F.Busch. In 1802 the Institute was included in the Medico-surgical Academy as a German department which was abolished after opening Derpt University in 1803.

Almost most of the Petersburg medical workers were Germans and they worked practically at every medical institution of the capital. There were also private hospitals of German physicians. So, the first private hospital for lunatics was opened in 1845 by Dr. Leydesdorf who headed the department of mental diseases in Vienna University after having worked in Russia for about 10 years. In 1858 similar hospital was opened by R.S.Heiking, in 1867 there appeared a hospital of Dr. A.P.Schultze which later turned into a large mental hospital named after Balinsky (at present it is a city narcological dispensary). In the second half of the XIX century in Petersburg there were two small nursing homes for women's diseases: of doctor Stoize and doctor Wiedemann , and of Stoll and Salmanov. In 1893 pastor E.Freufeld and doctor Wiedemann initiated collecting money for the construction of a maternity home which was sanctified in 1899. A school of obstetricians was affiliated to it which was given the rights of a state school. Up to now this maternity home is known among the citizens as Wiedemann's.

In 1859 an Evangelical hospital was opened for women with women's internal and surgical diseases. People with acute and chronic eruptions, mental disorders and cancer were not liable to hospitalization. The hospital was connected with the house of deaconhood. Besides city hospitals the deaconesses (sisters of charity) and probation sisters served Evangehcal asylums, St.Emmanuil asylum for children suffering from epilepsy and mental retardation, women's asylum for incurable patients and cripples opened in Udelnaya in 1880 and 1886 correspondingly and for men - chronic invalids in Lesnoe in 1898.

The history of Alexander's hospital for men in the 15^ line (street) of Vasilievsky island will be considered in special detail. It was set up by citizens of German Empire for patients with internal, contagious and surgical diseases. In different years it was headed by Z.F.Moritz, G.G.Westphalen, Seifert, G.I.Karstens. Their reports were published in German. Since the beginning of the First World War the hospital was no longer under the German jurisdiction. From 1921 till 1927 the hospital was working under the aegis of the German Red Cross and then under the authority of the Leningrad Health Service Department and was reorganized into a neuro-psychiatric hospital. In 1931 on its basis the Pavlov clinic of neuroses was created (at present it is the 7th mental hospital).

A.F.Mefodovsky

N.F.Arendt and his role in the development of international contacts in the field of surgery

In connection with the 200^ anniversary of A. S .Pushkin's birthday we can't help remembering the Petersburg German surgeon Nikolaj Fedorovich Arendt (1785-1859). His name inscribed in golden letters on the marble board is the first in the list of graduates of the Medico-surgical Academy who obtained a distinction in different years. He was the first of physicians in the history of Russian medicine who was awarded without examinations an honorary title of doctor of medicine and surgery “for diligent service and perfect knowledge of medical science shown by him in numerous laborious operations)). Excellent and circumstantial descriptions of Arendt's famous operations made a valuable contribution to the world medicine and they are kept in the Military-medical museum of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation.

His article about a successful case of legation of the carotid artery (one of the first in Europe) was the first in the Mihtary-medical journal in 1823 which subsequently played a great role in preparation and consolidation of surgeons from different countries.

In the service list of Arendt there are three gratitudes from Emperor Nickolas II : two for curing internal diseases and one for surgical care for fracture of the clavicle.

In 1855 when N.F.Arendt was congratulated on his 50 years jubilee of surgical activities the Society of German physicians of St.Petersburg noted his outstanding role in the development of medicine and training of medical workers. Such famous physicians as Sperer, Rein-Feldt, Herman, Thieleman, Weise, Peron, Korenburger honoured Arendt as their teacher. The Military-medical museum keeps Arendt's correspondence with famous foreign surgeons. The evidence is available that Arendt made operations jointly with his French and German colleagues. The archives documents witness a very important fact: in the XIX century the corporative solidarity of medical workers was more important than hostility between nations and states. The revival of this valuable tradition at the present time is seen in the activities of the International organization “Doctors beyond limits”.

 

L.V.Kochorova

The role of the German specialists in the organization of medical care for mental patients in St.Petersburg

German specialists contributed a lot in the establishment of the native psychiatric hospital service. The vivid example of it is a creation of the hospital named after the God’s Mother of All Grieving People which was founded in 11 versts from St.-Petersburg in the 30th of the XIX century (the building was destroyed during the II World War).

Being a talented administrator, an educated and experienced psychiatrist I.F.Rul, the German by nationality, born in the Baltic province in Lifliandia, was at the head of the new created hospital for “moral treatment of mental patients ”. In 1832 F.I. Gertsog, born in Austria and found his second motherland in Russia, was appointed as a Chief Physician of the “All Grieving People ” hospital. Under the management of I.F.Rul and F.I. Gertsog ,who implemented of the achievements of German physician the hospital became one of the best establishments for mental people in Europe.

In 1837 a report of the Chief Physician F.I. Gertsog about the work of the hospital was published. It was suggested to legalize the forms of “ moral influence ” including the therapy of being busy. In 1842 I.F. Rul composed the hospital regulations. The regulations had been for inflated prices sale and the income was used for the “ poor people who were discharged from the hospital ”. In 1846 F.I.Gertsog published his “ Researches about mental people ” based on his experience in the hospital. He noted the necessity to train all the hospital patients to “ reasonable way of life ”. The “ establishment for incurable people ” for the 100 patients accommodation had been created in the “All Grieving People” hospital by 1850.

The German specialists implement the leading methods, which were worked out in German. For example, a lot attention was paid to personnel training. Servants and nurses had been trained among the graduates of the local foundling house. Taking into consideration various categories of mental patients such as “ recovering, quiet, troubled, difficult, violent ” and various reasons of diseases different departments were created in the hospital. Observance of confinement conditions made a successful patients treatment possible. In 1853 for the first time in the world an outpatient service for mental patients was organized by the hospital personnel. In the middle of the XIX century the “All Grieving People” hospital became the biggest psychiatric hospital in St.-Petersburg. Among the total number of beds (904) in the capital more than a third (350) was in the “All Grieving People ” hospital. Under the observance of the confinement conditions in two years about 50% of mental patients with the improvement of their state of health were discharged from the hospital.

The compare in the treatment of mental patients was done by Reformadsky H.H. in 1908 in his book “The moral treatment of mental patients in Berlin, London, Paris and Viena”.

 

M.Sh.Fainshtein

Russische Mediziner in Heidelberg

Von 1860 bis 1914 studierten 443 russischen Staatsangehoerigen Medizin oder erhoehteten ihren Berufsbildung in Heidelberger Universitaet, einem der fuehrenden Universitaetszentren Deutschlands. Unter ihnen waren die beruehmten russischen Aerzte N.Pirogov, M.Volkov, E.Botkin, U.Filiptschenko sowi viele andere, die ihre in Heidelberg erworbene Kenntnisse zum Wohl der russischen Wissenschaft und des Gesundheitswesens benutzt hatten.

 

L. Choumeiko

Rudolf Virchow (1825-1902) und die Russische Medizin

Die Zellularpathologie Rudolf Virchow fällt in die Zeit zwischen 1848 und 1855 in der die Russischen Universitäten von Westeuropa abgeschnitten waren. Die nach 1856 wiederaufgenommene Tradition, junge russische Mediziner zur Weiterbildung nach Deutschland zu schicken, förderte die Verbreitung der Zellularpathologie in Russland. Ihre Rezeption erfolgte keineswegs einheitlich, was zum einen im unterschiedlichen Entwicklungsstand der einzelnen Regionen Russlands und zum anderen im Bestreben führender Repräsentanten der russischen Medizin nach selbständiger nationaler Identität begründet war. Die ersten Reaktionen auf die Zellularpathologie zeigten das Nebeneinander veralteter Theorien, wie Humoral- und Solidarpathologie , sowie der neuen chemisch-physikalischen Phsysiologie. Die entscheidende Bedeutung für die Rezeption und Weiterentwicklung der Zellularpathologie hatten die Schüler Virchows in der Mediko-Chirurgischen Akademie in St.Petersburg.

Die allgemeine Pathologie entwickelte sich im Unterschied zur deutschen morphologischen Pathologie zunehmend in die experimentelle Richtung: eine Besonderheit der russischen Pathologie gegen Ende des 19 Jh. war die Begründung der Vergleichenden Richtung durch Ilja Iljitch Mechnikov und die Entwicklung der allgemeinen Pathologie der Zelle durch Sergeij Mikhajlovitch Lukjanov.

Höhepunkt der Anerkennung Virchows in Russland war seine Teilnahme am Internationalen Medizinischen Kongress in Moskau 1897. Das von ihm herausgegebene "Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für klinische Medizin" ist eine weitere Quelle für die Erforschung der deutsch-russischen Beziehungen in der Mediizin.

 

Yu.P.Golikov

I.P.Pavlov and German scientists

Beginning from the second half of the XIX century the development of national physiology was characterized by establishing personal contacts with the representatives of foreign physiology, mostly from Germany. Russian physiologists worked on probation at German laboratories, e.g. I.P.Pavlov worked with Heidenhain and Ludwig. They took active part in the work of International medical, psychological and physiological congresses and conferences, which helped to establish personal contacts and the following scientific discussions. So, publications of Russian researchers started to more often appear in German scientific journals. The progress of Russian national physiology began to attract attention of German physiologists and in the XX century a new trend of interrelations began - German specialists were the first foreign scientists who regularly came to Russia laboratories.

The report will consider these interrelations, with the Pavlov's contacts with German scientists taken as an example. Certain aspects of Pavlov's contacts with German specialists were earher elucidated in the works by V.L.Merkulov, D.G.Kvasov, A.K.Fedorova-Grot and others. The investigations of Pavlov and his disciples are known to have exerted a certain influence upon the problems of researches of German scientists who worked in the field of the physiology of digestion and the physiology of higher nervous activity.

Y.A.Mazing

Pathologists of the Institute of Experimental Medicine: development of Russian-German scientific contacts

German textbooks and treatise influence great on the beginning of Russian national medicine school in XV-XVII century. German science had traditional great role in scientific life of St.-Petersburg when Imperial Institute of Experimental Medicine was created. The main condition of scientist's training was long study tours in Europe scientific centres and first of all in Germany. This was because the main language of a science, at that time, was German.

Creation of Institute of Experimental Medicine was accompanied by interaction of three main, at that time, medicine Europe centres: L. Paster in France, R. Koch in Germany and J. Lister in England. Duke A.P. Oldenburg and his brothers-in-arms repeatedly got acquainted with the works of this laboratories and corresponded with them. And also need to stand out great influence of the German school that all managers of first six departments had numerous practice studies in Germany.

Institute's creator A.P. Oldenburg and first director E-L.F Shperk were Russian Germans. For whole life second director of the Institute S.M. Lukyanov - maintained close contacts with German colleagues. Recognizing his pathology authority, Virchov's archive made an exception and published in 1933 S.M. Lukyanov's article "Atom and Individual. To memoirs about R. Virchov."

Never the less authority in scientific society had another pathologist - N.N. Anichkov. He also spent two years in Germany in pathologicoanatomic Institute in Fraburg University at Professor L. Shoff. Co-operation of this two great scientists and their collectives were remaining through all years before Second World War. Also Russian German was nearest assistant of N.N. Anichkov professor V.D. Cinserling. School's co-operation of two peoples promoted research development in pathology field.

 

M.A.Akimenko, A.M.Schereschewskij, W.A.MikhaiIov

Psychoneurologisches Forschungsinstitut W.M.Beghterew und dessen Wissenschaftliche Kontakte mit den Wissenschaftlern Deutchlabds auf dem Gebiet der Psychiatrie, Psychoterapie und Medizinischen Psychologie

Die ZuBammenarbeit des tt.M.Bechter-ew-lnstituts mit ausländischen Zentren bildete immer einen wichtigen Aspekt dessen wissenschaftlicher Tätigkeit, Die wissenschaftlichen Kontakte mit den deutschen Wissenschaftlern sind auch keine Ausnahme, und sie haben tiefe geschichtliche Wurzeln, So am Anfang seiner ärztlichen Tätigkeit wurde W.M.Bechterew im Frühling 1884, kurz nach Beendigung der Medico--Chirurgischen Akademie in St.Petersburg, ins Ausland auf Studienreise geschickt, wo er sich in Deutschland, unter anderem in Berlin und Leipzig, mit der Organisation der klinischen Arbeit bei den besten Professoren jener Zeit (C.F.0.Westpfahl, P.E.Flechsig, u.a.) bekannt machte.

Das Psychoneurologisohe Institut in St. Petersburg war das dritte Institut (nach dem Psychologischen Institut in Paris und Neurologischen Institut in Berlin), eröffnet in Beantwortung des Aufrufs der Internationalen Akademienassoziation an die Regierungen der Länder der Welt bezüglich der Organisation der Institute für Hirnforsohung. Professor W.Waldeyer (Anatomisches Institut in Berlin) war der erste der ausländischen Wissenschaftler, den V.M.Bechterew von der Eröffnung des Instituts zu benachrichtigen für notwendig hielt. Später wurden ständige wissensohaftlishe Kontakte zwischen den deutschen und rusaländischen Wissenschaftlern unterhalten. Für die Teilnahme an der Internationalen Hygiene-Ausstellung 1911 in Dresden war das Institut mit einem Ehrendiplom ausgezeichnet worden.

Der Erste Weltkrieg, der nach drei Jahren ausbrach, und nachfolgende Ereignisse in unserem Lande reduzierten die Verbindungen und bescü-ränkten diese auf die Publikation der wieseffsohaftlioüen Schriften und kurzdauernde Herausgabe der "Russisoh-Deutsohen Medizinisohen Zeitschrift".

In den sechziger Jahren bildeten sich wissenschaftliche Kontakte mit den Wissenschaftlern der DDR (Prof. K.Weise) heraus. 5o In den letzten 15 Jahren wird die engste Zusammenarbeit mit den Wissenschaftlern Deutsolllands realisiert: a) gemeinsame wissenschaftliche Projekte mit einer Reihe der wissenschaftlichen Zentren Deutschlands (Deutsche Akademie für Psychoanalyse, ülmer Universität, u.a.); b) Organisation der gemeinsamen Kongresse und Konferenzen (das Institut wurde zur Durchfohrungsstätte des 10. Kongresses der Weltassoziation für Dynamische Psychiatrie WADP und XXIII. Internationalen Symposiums der Deutschen Akademie für Psychoanalyse (DAP) erwählt; c) Studienreisen der Wissenschaftler des Instituts nach verschiedene wissenschaftliche Zentre Deutschlands und der deutschen Wissenschaftler nach W.M.Bechterew-lnstitut; d) Erwählung von Prof. J.Karkos (Deutsche Gesellschaft der Psychiater, Psychotherapeuten und Neurologen /DGPPN/) zum Ehrenmitglied des Wissenschaftlichen Rates des W.M.Bechterew-lnstituts und des Direktors des W.M.Bechte-rew-lnstituta Prof” MoM.Kabanovs zum Präsidenten der Weltassoziation f5r Dynamische Psychiatrie (WADP); e) Veröffentlichung der gemeinsamen wissenschaftlichen Werke, Austausch von wissenschaftlichen Druckerzeugnisse, Teilnahme an den Ausstellungen u“s.w”

 

P. G. Nazarov

German roots of A.Vladimirov-O.Hartoch microbiology school

The early development of microbiology and immunology in Russia is associated with a group of outstanding Russian scientists among whom the prominent role is belonged to Aleksander Aleksandrovitch Wladimirov and his mutual disciple and co-worker Oscar Oscarowitch (Oscar Heinrich) Hartoch. The activity of both scientists was connected with the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St. Petersburg, where they created one of the Russia’s and USSR brightest microbiological school, that gave the country a number of new great names. Development of the Wladimirov-Hartoch school was promoted by tight interactions with the greatest centres of microbiological science in Germany (till the end of 20-ies of XX century) as well as personal contacts with outstanding German scientists (Wladimirov’s – with R.Koch, P.Ehrlich, E.Behring, Hartoch’s – with E.Friedberger, W.Kolle etc.). The present report deals with data elucidating the scientific interactions of A.A.Wladimirov and O.Hartoch with German science in the field of studying the problems of tuberculosis, mellitus, lepra, anaphilaxis, and chemotherapy of infectious diseases.